Waste-to-value upgrading of edible mushroom processing residues: green extraction innovation, AI optimization, and development of functional ingredients for future foods

ABSTRACT Edible mushroom cultivation and processing generate substantial by-product streams, including spent mushroom substrate (MS), extraction residue (MR), liquid wastewater (LW), and irregular fruiting bodies and stipes (IFBS), which retain abundant polysaccharides, dietary fiber, proteins, and phenolic compounds. This review compares the principles and industrial applicability of six extraction technologies (five green technologies and conventional hot-water extraction), emphasizes the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in overcoming the bottlenecks of nonlinear parameter coupling and low extraction efficiency, and proposes a five-layer intelligent framework (perception-modeling-optimization-control-verification) for the conversion of mushroom by-products into functional foods. It further critically examines key applications and constraints in functional foods, healthcare, and related fields, including unclear structure-activity relationships, the laboratory-to-industry efficiency gap, and the absence of standardized life cycle assessment (LCA). By integrating green intelligent extraction with clean-label functional food innovation, this review offers implementable strategies for converting edible mushroom by-products into sustainable future food ingredients within a circular economy.