Psychometric properties of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Ecuadorian older adults: a comparative analysis of one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor models

Introduction

Hopelessness is a predictor of depression and suicide. Suicide is a preventable cause of mortality worldwide. Although it is not among the leading overall causes of death in older adults due to the predominance of chronic non-communicable diseases, it remains an epidemiologically relevant issue in this stage of life. Globally, suicide ranked as the twenty-first leading cause of death in 2021, and approximately 16.6% of suicide-related deaths occurred among individuals aged 70 years and older. This highlights the need to assess associated psychological factors, such as hopelessness and depression, in the older adult population.