GLP-1 and dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonists as neuroprotective agents: Mechanisms, clinical evidence, and translational perspectives

Background

Neurodegenerative diseases are increasingly linked to metabolic dysfunction, such as impaired insulin signaling, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and chronic neuroinflammation. These observations have contributed to the type 3 diabetes hypothesis, which describes AD as a disorder associated with brain insulin resistance. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and dual GLP-1/GIP receptor agonists have emerged as promising therapeutic candidates because of their metabolic and neuroprotective properties.