Targeting Host–Pathogen Interactions: Strategies, Experimental Assays, and Emerging Approaches for Inhibiting Bacterial and Viral Infections

Abstract Host-pathogen interactions are a complex and dynamic biological process that regulates the initiation of infection and its disease process, immune response and therapeutic outcomes. While there has been considerable progress in the development of drugs to treat infectious diseases still represent a major burden in global health and socio-economic outcomes, especially when combined with the effects of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), emerging pathogens, viral evolution and limitations of pathogen-centered treatments. Recent studies have clearly shown that the outcome of infection depends not only on the virulence of the pathogen, but also on complex molecular and cellular interactions between the host and the pathogen at the host-pathogen interface. These interactions engage coordinated mechanisms such as adhesion, receptor engagement, tissue invasion, intracellular trafficking, immune modulation, metabolic adaptation, and dissemination, providing several opportunities for therapeutic intervention. The review aimed to give a comprehensive overview of existing strategies targeting host–pathogen interaction to combat bacterial and viral infections. It covers the molecular mechanism involved in pathogen attachment, receptor – ligand recognition, intracellular survival, replication, quorum sensing and biofilm formation. The review also explores host directed and pathogen directed therapeutic strategies, such as immune modulation, modulation of signaling pathways, neutralizing biologics, antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophage therapy, and gene editing. Further, new technologies like multi-omics, CRISPR, artificial intelligence, synthetic biology, RNA therapeutics and smart biomaterials are highlighted alongside experimental platforms like cell-based assays, high throughput screening, advanced imaging, organoids, organ-on-chip and in vivo infection models to speed up development of next generation anti-infectives.