Identification of Immune-Inflammatory Endotypes in Early COPD Risk: A Cluster Analysis of Age-Associated Biomarkers

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is increasingly recognized as a highly heterogeneous syndrome rather than a single disease entity. Identifying biologically distinct endotypes is essential for early risk stratification and precision prevention. Immunosenescence-the age-related remodeling of the immune system-has been associated with COPD pathogenesis, but its heterogeneity remains poorly characterized.