Effects of Kalanchoe pinnata, exercise, and stimulation on neuroinflammation, redox homeostasis, and neuropathic pain in a Wistar-rat model

Background

Neuropathic pain is a persistent, treatment-resistant condition driven not only by peripheral nerve injury but also by maladaptive neuroplasticity in central pain-regulatory networks. Evidence increasingly points to dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a vital area for top-down control of pain, emotions, and autonomic functions, as a key factor in maintaining pain hypersensitivity.