Cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease is a major cardiovascular risk state in which conventional risk factors coexist with renal -specific mechanisms that promote vascular injury, myocardial remodeling, thrombosis, and arterial calcification. The cardiovascular burden becomes progressively greater as kidney function declines and is also strongly related to the degree of albuminuria. Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, smoking, obesity, and physical inactivity remain important modifiable determinants, but their effects are amplified by CKD -related inflammation, oxidative stress, anemia, disordered mineral metabolism, endothelial dysfunction, and uremic toxin accumulation. This review summarizes the principal cardiovascular risk factors in CKD, explains their interaction with declining kidney function, and discusses clinically relevant approaches to risk assessment and prevention. Particular attention is given to estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria as risk markers, blood pressure control, lipid management, diabetes-related risk, CKD -mineral and bone disorder, anemia, inflammation, and contemporary kidney-protective therapies with cardiovascular effects. A multifactorial approach is required because no single biomarker or intervention adequately captures the complex cardiovascular phenotype of CKD.