Global resurgence and geographic expansion of SAT1 foot-and-mouth disease: insights from outbreaks in Lesotho, Cyprus and Greece

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an important transboundary animal disease affecting livestock worldwide. Analysis of outbreaks reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) between 2005 and 31 July 2026, with 2026 representing an incomplete year, identified 2025 as the largest outbreak year of the study period and revealed a marked increase in SAT1-associated outbreaks, whereas most other serotypes remained stable or declined. While Africa recorded its highest recent outbreak burden, Europe experienced a notable resurgence following two consecutive years without reported outbreaks (2023–2024), highlighting changing patterns in SAT1 distribution. Descriptive spatiotemporal analyses focused on three contrasting SAT1 scenarios: the first occurrence of FMD in Lesotho, the first reported SAT1 outbreak in Cyprus and the re-emergence of SAT1 in Lesvos, Greece. Reconstruction of official WOAH event reports showed that the Lesotho outbreak was repeatedly associated with illegal animal movement and epidemiologically linked cattle posts. In Europe, two distinct outbreak waves were identified, with the second characterised by SAT1 outbreaks in Cyprus and Lesvos following earlier SAT1 circulation in neighbouring Turkey. Descriptive spatiotemporal analyses demonstrated progressive geographic expansion of reported outbreaks across both islands, while comparative analyses revealed differences in species involvement and outbreak management, with vaccination predominating in Turkey and stamping-out measures used in Cyprus and Lesvos. These findings highlight the recent geographic expansion of SAT1 into previously unaffected settings and suggest that livestock movement, farm connectivity and integrated control strategies warrant further consideration for future surveillance and preparedness.