Potential risk of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica in Saudi Arabia: a comprehensive review of the current status and future challenges

Respirable crystalline silica (RCS) is a major occupational health hazard associated with silicosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other systemic disorders. Saudi Arabia is undergoing rapid industrial expansion in sectors with substantial potential for RCS exposure, including mining, construction, cement production, glass manufacturing, oil and gas, engineered stone fabrication, and photovoltaic manufacturing. This review evaluates the potential risk of occupational RCS exposure in Saudi Arabia by integrating evidence from the scientific literature, government reports, labor and mining statistics, mineralogical data, and regulatory documents. The novel silica Hazard triangle framework was applied to assess three principal determinants of occupational exposure: workforce distribution, silica-containing materials, and high-risk industrial activities. Saudi Arabia possesses extensive reserves of high-purity silica sand, and continued expansion of mining and downstream silica-based industries may increase occupational exposure potential. The kingdom’s arid climate may also contribute to dust generation and increase the occupational exposure of RCS. Although documented cases of silicosis confirm that silica-related disease exists in Saudi Arabia, published evidence on occupational exposure assessment, epidemiology, and health surveillance remains limited. International regulatory developments demonstrate the importance of health-based occupational exposure limits (OELs), exposure monitoring, engineering controls, and medical surveillance. Current Saudi labor law, National Council for occupational safety and health (NCOSH) policies, and General Organization for Social Insurance (GOSI) occupational disease frameworks provide an important legal and institutional foundation for the future development of silica-specific occupational health regulations. This review identifies important knowledge gaps and highlights the need for comprehensive exposure assessment, strengthened industrial hygiene capacity, and evidence-based regulatory strategies to reduce the future burden of silica-related diseases while supporting sustainable industrial development in Saudi Arabia.